1. INTRODUCTION: THE DUTCH REPUBLIC AGAINST LOUIS XIV: THE 1665-1697 PERIOD (Peter Lenders)
After the Treaties of Munster and Westphalia in 1648, which made an end to both the 80 Years War (Dutch Revolt) in the Netherlands and the 30 Years War in the Holy Roman Empire, France and Spain still were at war. Only after the Peace of the Pyrenees in 1659 both countries ceased hostilities.
The United Provinces had emerged from the 80 Years War as a modern state, hence to be called The Republic. It actually was a confederate state, with much power still with the individual Provinces, although the secretaries or pensionaries of Holland seized actual power after in 1650 the Stadtholder Willem II suddenly died. Contrary to the fleet, the field army had been badly neglected which would soon be proven during the Münster War.
The United Provinces had emerged from the 80 Years War as a modern state, hence to be called The Republic. It actually was a confederate state, with much power still with the individual Provinces, although the secretaries or pensionaries of Holland seized actual power after in 1650 the Stadtholder Willem II suddenly died. Contrary to the fleet, the field army had been badly neglected which would soon be proven during the Münster War.
Louis XIV in 1661
|
William II of Orange in 1688
|
The Dutch republic in 1648. The seperate yellow Dutch land is Maestricht and surroundings
|
Louis XIV had developed into a War King, looking after chances to expand the territory of his French Kingdom, by which his own glory definitely didn’t come to the last place. The river Rhine still was regarded as the historical boundary of the Franconian Empire from the days of Charlemagne. This led to several attempts by Louis XIV to expand his influence into the German Pfalz and Westphalia regions and into the Netherlands as far as the rivers Meuse and Rhine.
It was a period in which diplomats were masters in forging alliances, contracts etc., but also in the art of ‘how to cheat your allies’. Louis XIV’s path had been paved by the Cardinals Richelieu and Mazarin, who both were masters in diplomacy. During a large part of his reign he was sided by very capable advisors as Louvois the Secretary of State and War, Colbert the Secretary of Finance and economics and De Lionne, Secretary of foreign affairs.
They were able to create the random circumstances for Louis XIV’s military aspirations. As the following map shows, the theatres of operations were mainly situated in an area covering the Spanish Netherlands, Franche-Comté and the region West of the Rhine.
Furthermore in this period, there was the Williamnite War in Ireland and some fighting in Savoy and Gerona.
Apart of Louis’ own wars, there was in northern Europe also continuous fighting between allies of both France and the Republic, like Brandenburg/Prussia, Denmark and Sweden.
We’ll only concentrate on those wars in which both the Republic and France were (in)directly involved.
First the general political constellation, in which the Republic sometimes formed the centre, is explained to understand the background against which the military events did take place.
1648-1668: alliances, conflicts and treaties.
Although the period after 1648 is often described as a period of relative rest, during which the great war-stricken powers of Western-Europe could recuperate, still a lot was happening on the political, but also on the military front. I’ll only deal in outlines with all the treaties and coalitions, which would finally lead to the complete isolation of the Republic.
The Republic had concluded peace with Spain at Münster in January 1648. France and Spain first concluded a peace with the Treaty of the Pyrenees in 1659, resulting in a considerable expansion of territory in favour of France and the marriage between Louis XIV and the daughter of the Spanish King Philip IV.
Meanwhile the Republic had been involved in the First Anglo-Dutch War from 1652-1654, which partly was instigated by the Navigation Act, launched by England in 1651. In April 1654 Peace was concluded with the ratification of the Treaty of Westminster. This Treaty was backed up with a separate secret treaty between the States of (the Province) Holland and Cromwell, known as the Act of Exclusion. This Act stated that William III would be excluded from any influential position in the Republic´s government. This would eliminate for Cromwell the threat of Orangist support to attempts of the Stuarts for an invasion of England.
In 1661 Louis XIV became King of France, a country that had been well prepared for the future by Cardinal Mazarin. He was the prototype of the absolute monarch. In 1662 the Republic and France concluded a defensive treaty, along with some (for the Republic attractive) commercial treaties.
From 1665 - 1667 the Republic was involved in it’s second Anglo-Dutch war, which was inspired almost solely by economical concerns. Again the Dutch fleet had to act without an admiral-general, but was lucky to have De Ruyter as admiral of the fleet. She had to do also without the promised allied French ships, which never turned up. During the 2nd Anglo-Dutch War England had found an ally in Bishop Bernard van Galen of Münster. On 19th September 1665 Münster declared war to the Republic and invaded it’s territory (see below).
In 1665 King Philip IV of Spain had died and his 4 year old heir Charles II was a weak child. This urged Louis XIV to lay already a serious claim to part of the inheritance of Philip IV, based on a local law called the devolution-right . Hence the name for the conflict: War of Devolution. Louis XIV invaded the Spanish Netherlands in May 1667, just when the Republic was fully occupied by the 2nd Anglo-Dutch War. After the famous expedition on the Medway, Peace was concluded at Breda in July 1667.
The new political constellation compelled Louis XIV to stop his conquest of the Spanish Netherlands and go into winter-quarters. Meanwhile Louis XIV and Charles II had concluded a secret treaty for one year which forbade both parties to enter alliances that might result in disadvantages for one of both parties.
In the meantime there had been conflicts going on between the English and French in the colonies in the Caribbean and on the American East-coast, known as the Anglo-French War of 1666-1667. However also the Dutch were active in the Caribbean and the Surinam-region during both the 1st and 2nd Anglo-Dutch Wars. Here the Dutch West-Indian Company fought several conflicts with their English counterpart.
In January 1668 Leopold I and Louis XIV concluded a secret treaty which contained a partition of the future Spanish inheritance and in which Leopold agreed not to intervene in the Spanish Netherlands, which would fall to Louis XIV when time was there. The Emperor’s passive attitude also caused the neutrality of the Elector of Brandenburg , one of the Protestant German sovereigns, who was affected to the Republic. Louis neutralised him by promising not to push forward one of his relatives or protégés in case the Polish throne would become vacant.
In January 1668, 2 weeks after the before mentioned secret treaty between Leopold I and Louis XIV, the famous Triple Alliance was concluded between the Republic, England and Sweden. It’s purpose was to mediate between France and Spain and try to persuade Spain to give France some fortress-towns in the Spanish Netherlands or Franche-Comté and to convince France it would be wise to accept this offer. If armed force would be needed to convince Spain, Sweden would supply troops, which would be paid by Spain. This alliance resulted in the Peace of Aachen in May 1668. This ended the Devolution-War, with France being allowed to keep some important gains in the Spanish Netherlands.
The Republic was so relieved that she decided to strike off the newly raised regiments from their army list and reduce the remaining units to peace-strength. This would prove to be a bit premature.
The French policy of encirclement of the Republic.
Louis XIV was totally surprised by the anti-French attitude, especially in the Republic and deeply insulted as he learned the details of the Triple Alliance. He considered the Republic the main force behind this alliance and was out for revenge. From then on his entire foreign policy was inspired by his desire to neutralize the Republic’s power and revenge must have been his prime motive to wage war with the Republic. Of course this all served a higher purpose. From reading various historical analyses one may conclude that Louis XIV’s prime aim was to secure his ‘dynastic rights’ to the Spanish Succession. This he wanted to realize by encircling the Spanish Netherlands or by weakening the Dutch Republic sufficiently enough to take away it’s political and economical threat. Moreover with France as southern neighbour, the Republic would become more cautious to obstruct French Policies once they would be aimed against the Dutch economy. Louis’ finance minister Colbert was already working on the economical parts of a future peace treaty with the Republic, which were aimed at a turnabout of economical power. Moreover a defeat of the rich Republic would eliminate the sole West-European power that had sufficient financial resources to ‘buy’ allies against France.
Louis XIV managed between 1668 and 1672 to surround the Republic with almost only hostile or neutral nations: England, Archbishop and Elector Maximilian Hendrik of Cologne, who also was Prince-bishop of Liége, the Princebishop of Münster, Duke of Hannover, Bishop of Osnabrück and Sweden. They all declared to help France in some way or not to intervene, like the Reichs-Emperor.
It was a period in which diplomats were masters in forging alliances, contracts etc., but also in the art of ‘how to cheat your allies’. Louis XIV’s path had been paved by the Cardinals Richelieu and Mazarin, who both were masters in diplomacy. During a large part of his reign he was sided by very capable advisors as Louvois the Secretary of State and War, Colbert the Secretary of Finance and economics and De Lionne, Secretary of foreign affairs.
They were able to create the random circumstances for Louis XIV’s military aspirations. As the following map shows, the theatres of operations were mainly situated in an area covering the Spanish Netherlands, Franche-Comté and the region West of the Rhine.
Furthermore in this period, there was the Williamnite War in Ireland and some fighting in Savoy and Gerona.
Apart of Louis’ own wars, there was in northern Europe also continuous fighting between allies of both France and the Republic, like Brandenburg/Prussia, Denmark and Sweden.
We’ll only concentrate on those wars in which both the Republic and France were (in)directly involved.
First the general political constellation, in which the Republic sometimes formed the centre, is explained to understand the background against which the military events did take place.
1648-1668: alliances, conflicts and treaties.
Although the period after 1648 is often described as a period of relative rest, during which the great war-stricken powers of Western-Europe could recuperate, still a lot was happening on the political, but also on the military front. I’ll only deal in outlines with all the treaties and coalitions, which would finally lead to the complete isolation of the Republic.
The Republic had concluded peace with Spain at Münster in January 1648. France and Spain first concluded a peace with the Treaty of the Pyrenees in 1659, resulting in a considerable expansion of territory in favour of France and the marriage between Louis XIV and the daughter of the Spanish King Philip IV.
Meanwhile the Republic had been involved in the First Anglo-Dutch War from 1652-1654, which partly was instigated by the Navigation Act, launched by England in 1651. In April 1654 Peace was concluded with the ratification of the Treaty of Westminster. This Treaty was backed up with a separate secret treaty between the States of (the Province) Holland and Cromwell, known as the Act of Exclusion. This Act stated that William III would be excluded from any influential position in the Republic´s government. This would eliminate for Cromwell the threat of Orangist support to attempts of the Stuarts for an invasion of England.
In 1661 Louis XIV became King of France, a country that had been well prepared for the future by Cardinal Mazarin. He was the prototype of the absolute monarch. In 1662 the Republic and France concluded a defensive treaty, along with some (for the Republic attractive) commercial treaties.
From 1665 - 1667 the Republic was involved in it’s second Anglo-Dutch war, which was inspired almost solely by economical concerns. Again the Dutch fleet had to act without an admiral-general, but was lucky to have De Ruyter as admiral of the fleet. She had to do also without the promised allied French ships, which never turned up. During the 2nd Anglo-Dutch War England had found an ally in Bishop Bernard van Galen of Münster. On 19th September 1665 Münster declared war to the Republic and invaded it’s territory (see below).
In 1665 King Philip IV of Spain had died and his 4 year old heir Charles II was a weak child. This urged Louis XIV to lay already a serious claim to part of the inheritance of Philip IV, based on a local law called the devolution-right . Hence the name for the conflict: War of Devolution. Louis XIV invaded the Spanish Netherlands in May 1667, just when the Republic was fully occupied by the 2nd Anglo-Dutch War. After the famous expedition on the Medway, Peace was concluded at Breda in July 1667.
The new political constellation compelled Louis XIV to stop his conquest of the Spanish Netherlands and go into winter-quarters. Meanwhile Louis XIV and Charles II had concluded a secret treaty for one year which forbade both parties to enter alliances that might result in disadvantages for one of both parties.
In the meantime there had been conflicts going on between the English and French in the colonies in the Caribbean and on the American East-coast, known as the Anglo-French War of 1666-1667. However also the Dutch were active in the Caribbean and the Surinam-region during both the 1st and 2nd Anglo-Dutch Wars. Here the Dutch West-Indian Company fought several conflicts with their English counterpart.
In January 1668 Leopold I and Louis XIV concluded a secret treaty which contained a partition of the future Spanish inheritance and in which Leopold agreed not to intervene in the Spanish Netherlands, which would fall to Louis XIV when time was there. The Emperor’s passive attitude also caused the neutrality of the Elector of Brandenburg , one of the Protestant German sovereigns, who was affected to the Republic. Louis neutralised him by promising not to push forward one of his relatives or protégés in case the Polish throne would become vacant.
In January 1668, 2 weeks after the before mentioned secret treaty between Leopold I and Louis XIV, the famous Triple Alliance was concluded between the Republic, England and Sweden. It’s purpose was to mediate between France and Spain and try to persuade Spain to give France some fortress-towns in the Spanish Netherlands or Franche-Comté and to convince France it would be wise to accept this offer. If armed force would be needed to convince Spain, Sweden would supply troops, which would be paid by Spain. This alliance resulted in the Peace of Aachen in May 1668. This ended the Devolution-War, with France being allowed to keep some important gains in the Spanish Netherlands.
The Republic was so relieved that she decided to strike off the newly raised regiments from their army list and reduce the remaining units to peace-strength. This would prove to be a bit premature.
The French policy of encirclement of the Republic.
Louis XIV was totally surprised by the anti-French attitude, especially in the Republic and deeply insulted as he learned the details of the Triple Alliance. He considered the Republic the main force behind this alliance and was out for revenge. From then on his entire foreign policy was inspired by his desire to neutralize the Republic’s power and revenge must have been his prime motive to wage war with the Republic. Of course this all served a higher purpose. From reading various historical analyses one may conclude that Louis XIV’s prime aim was to secure his ‘dynastic rights’ to the Spanish Succession. This he wanted to realize by encircling the Spanish Netherlands or by weakening the Dutch Republic sufficiently enough to take away it’s political and economical threat. Moreover with France as southern neighbour, the Republic would become more cautious to obstruct French Policies once they would be aimed against the Dutch economy. Louis’ finance minister Colbert was already working on the economical parts of a future peace treaty with the Republic, which were aimed at a turnabout of economical power. Moreover a defeat of the rich Republic would eliminate the sole West-European power that had sufficient financial resources to ‘buy’ allies against France.
Louis XIV managed between 1668 and 1672 to surround the Republic with almost only hostile or neutral nations: England, Archbishop and Elector Maximilian Hendrik of Cologne, who also was Prince-bishop of Liége, the Princebishop of Münster, Duke of Hannover, Bishop of Osnabrück and Sweden. They all declared to help France in some way or not to intervene, like the Reichs-Emperor.
|
The map on the right shows the situation of the Republic before the start of the 1672-War.
East of the Republic was the neutral Reichs-territory. To the south the:
|
|
THE NEXT CHAPTERS ARE UNDER CONSTRUCTION
The first Münster War 1665-1666
The War of Devolution 1667-1668
The Dutch War 1672-1678
Guerre de Réunion 1681-1684
Nine Years War 1688-1697
The Dutch army during the period 1665-1697
- Organisation
- Uniforms
- Flags
Dutch artillery officer of 1672